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TC4
TCSP
CAMEX-4 / KAMP
KWAJEX
TRMM-LBA
CAMEX-3 / TEFLUN-B
FIRE-III / ACE
TEFLUN-A
HSME-96
CAMEX-2
CAMEX-1
TOGA COARE
STORMFEST
CaPE
JAX90
 
 


*** Click on an experiment name to the left to view its website ***

TOGA COARE (1993) KWAJEX (1999) FIRE-III / ACE (1998) TEFLUN-A TCSP (2005) TC4 (2007) LBA (1998) CAMEX-3 / TEFLUN-B (1998) CAMEX-4 / KAMP (2001) CAMEX-2 (1995) CAMEX-1 (1993) CaPE (1991) Maiden Voyage (1990)

*** Click on an experiment in the image above to view a brief description***

The AMPR has participated in more than 14 major research programs and numerous instrument integrations beginning October, 1990. A summary of AMPR research missions is given below.

Time Period

Experiment Name

Acronym

Region of Interest

May - Aug 2007

Tropical Composition, Cloud and Climate Coupling

TC4

Eastern Pacific Ocean

July 2005

Tropical Cloud Systems Processes Experiment

TCSP

Eastern Pacific Ocean, Caribbean Sea

Aug - Sep 2001

Fourth Convection and Moisture Experiment/Keys Area Microphysics Project

CAMEX-4

Atlantic Ocean, Florida Keys

Jul - Sep 1999

Kwajalein Experiment

KWAJEX

Central Pacific

Jan - Feb 1999

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission-
Large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere (LBA) experiment

TRMM-LBA

Amazon Basin

Aug - Sep 1998

Third Convection and Moisture Experiment/ Texas-Florida Underflight Experiment-B

CAMEX-3/
TEFLUN-B

Southeast U.S., Atlantic,GOMEX

July 1998

First ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) Regional Experiment III (FIRE-III) Arctic Cloud Experiment (ACE)

FIRE-III/ACE

Arctic Ocean

Mar - Apr 1998

Texas-Florida Underflight Experiment-A

TEFLUN-A

Gulf Coast

Jun - Jul 1996

Huntsville Soil Moisture Experiment

HSME-96

Huntsville, AL

Aug, 1995

Second Convention and Moisture Experiment

CAMEX-2

U.S. Atlantic

Sep, 1993

First Convection and Moisture Experiment

CAMEX-1

U.S. Atlantic

Jan - Feb, 1993

Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment

TOGA COARE

SW Pacific Ocean

Feb - Mar 1992

STormscale Operational and Research Meteorology Fronts Experiment Systems Test

STORMFEST

Central U.S.

Jul, 1991

Convection and Precipitation /
Electrification Experiment

CaPE

Melbourne, FL

Oct, 1990

Validation flights from Jacksonville, FL

JAX90

Gulf of Mexico

*** Click on an experiment name in the table above to view a brief description***


TC4
Tropical Composition, Cloud and Climate Coupling (TC4)

The NASA TC4 (Tropical Composition, Cloud and Climate Coupling) mission investigated the atmospheric structure, properties and processes in the tropical Eastern Pacific. The primary area of interest was the  atmosphere layer between approximately 46,000 ft and 59,000 ft (14-18 km). This is where the lower part of the atmosphere (the troposphere) meets the upper part (the stratosphere).

The TC4 mission was sponsored by the NASA Headquarters Atmospheric Composition Focus Area, including the Upper Atmospheric Research Program, the Radiation Science Program, and the Tropospheric Chemistry Program. The field experiment phase was completed during July and August 2007 based out of San Jose, Costa Rica.

Additional information about TC4 can be found at http://www.espo.nasa.gov/tc4/.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

19 Jul 07

1230-1830

22 Jul 07

1200-1745

24 Jul 07

1145-1845

25 Jul 07

1400-1900

29 Jul 07

1145-1815

31 Jul 07

1245-1800

03 Aug 07

1330-1830

05 Aug 07

1300-1730

06 Aug 07

1215-1845

08 Aug 07

2115-1815


TCSP
Tropical Cloud Systems and Processes (TCSP)

The Tropical Cloud Systems and Processes (TCSP) mission was a field research investigation sponsored by the Science Mission Directorate of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The field experiment was done during the month of July, 2005 and was based out of San Jose, Costa Rica. TCSP was a successor field mission of previous Convection and Moisture Experiment (CAMEX) missions.

TCSP was focused on the study of the dynamics and thermodynamics of precipitating cloud systems, including tropical cyclones using NASA-funded aircraft and surface remote sensing instrumentation. Targeted data sets were collected using the NASA ER-2 research aircraft, the NOAA P-3 Orion research aircraft, The Aerosonde Robotic Aircraft, and Atmospheric balloon soundings via latex meteorological balloons.

Additional information about TCSP can be found at http://tcsp.nsstc.nasa.gov.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC)

2 Jul 05 1900-2315
5-6 Jul 05 1800-0000
6-7 Jul 05 2000-0400
9 Jul 05 1100-1815

16 Jul 05

060-1245

17 Jul 05

0600-1345

20 Jul 05

0600-1230

23 Jul 05

0200-1000

24 Jul 05

0200-0945

25 Jul 05

0200-1000

27 Jul 05

060-1130


CAMEX-4 / KAMP
Convection and Moisture Experiment 4 (CAMEX4) / Keys Area Microphysics Project (KAMP)

The fourth field campaign in the CAMEX series (CAMEX-4) was based at Jacksonville Naval Air Station, Florida from 15 August through 25 September, 2001. The CAMEX-4 experiment studied tropical systems Chantal, Erin, Gabrielle and Humberto. CAMEX-4 collected data for research in tropical cyclone development, tracking, and intensification using NASA-funded aircraft along with stationary and mobile surface remote sensing instrumentation. Operations were coordinated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hurricane Research Division and the United States Weather Research Program (USWRP).

The Convection And Moisture EXperiments (CAMEX) are a series of field research investigations sponsored by the Earth Science Enterprise of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). There were a total of 10 flights that collected AMPR data, and are listed in the table below. The first two flights (on 8 and 9 Aug.) were configuration test flights prior to the actual CAMEX-4 experiment.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

8 Aug 2001

1900-2100

9-10 Aug 2001

2100-0000

13 Aug 2001 1900-2100
15 Aug 2001 1600-2100
20 Aug 2001 1800-1945

26 Aug 2001

1700-1945

3 Sep 2001 1645-1900
7 Sep 2001 1600-2015

9 Sep 2001

1630-1945

10 Sep 2001

1430-2145

16-17 Sep 2001

2000-0015

19 Sep 2001

1615-2100

22 Sep 2001

1645-2230

23-24 Sep 2001

1745-0130

24 Sep 2001

1830-0015

Additional information about CAMEX-4 can be found at http://camex.msfc.nasa.gov.


KWAJEX
Kwajalein Experiment (KWAJEX)

The Kwajalein Experiment, KWAJEX, is part of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission, TRMM, whose goals include providing Ground Validation, GV, for instruments onboard the TRMM satellite launched in November of 1997. The KWAJEX field campaign is the only TRMM campaign designed to be conducted over the tropical open ocean, and was conducted between 30 July and 14 September 1999. For KWAJEX, the AMPR instrument was mounted in the NASA DC-8 aircraft. Because of this change in aircraft, the data was collected at a lower altitude. This necessitated a change in the data collection rate, as the aircraft was flying at an altitude approximately half of that flown on the ER-2.

Additional information about KWAJEX can be found at http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/fieldexp/TRMM_FE/kwajex/.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC)

30 Jul 99

0300-0630

3 Aug 99

0330-0645

6 Aug 99

0315-0530

9-10 Aug 99

2230-0130

11-12 Aug 99

2145-0145

14-15 Aug 99

2315-0100

16 Aug 99

2215-2345

17 Aug 99

1930-2330

19 Aug 99

1930-2330

22 Aug 99

1900-2115

23 Aug 99

0115-0500

24 Aug 99

0300-0600

25 Aug 99

0400-0645

26 Aug 99

0415-0600

28 Aug 99

0300-0515

28-29 Aug 99

2300-0315

30 Aug 99

2030-2315

1-2 Sep 99

2330-0145

2 Sep 99

1900-2300

3 Sep 99

0145-0330

4-5 Sep 99

1900-0045

6 Sep 99

0000-0115

8 Sep 99

0015-0515

8 Sep 99

2030-2300

10-11 Sep 99

1930-0115

11 Sep 99

1900-2245

12-13 Sep 99

2215-0045

14 Sep 99

0315-0700


TRMM-LBA
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment (TRMM-LBA)

The ER-2 flew with AMPR and several other instruments over the southern Amazon Basin in order to validate the TRMM radars and imagers. This allowed direct comparison over a large land area of in situ ground based radars and rain gauge networks, to the TRMM instruments and the ER-2 instrumentation. These comparisons are necessary for the calibration of the TRMM sensors over data sparse tropical land regions.

Additional information about TRMM-LBA can be found at http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/fieldexp/TRMM_FE/.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

18 Dec 98

1445 - 1730

23 Jan 99

1100 - 1300

24 Jan 99

1745 - 2115

25 Jan 99

1945 - 2000

27 Jan 99

1845 - 2300

30 Jan 99

1800 - 2200

1 Feb 99

1730 - 1845

5 Feb 99

1730 - 2200

7 Feb 99

1730 - 2200

8 Feb 99

1930 - 2200

10 Feb 99

1745 - 2115

12 Feb 99

1745 - 2130

14 Feb 99

1745 - 2130

17 Feb 99

1745 - 2115

21 Feb 99

1745 - 2130

23 Feb 99

1845 - 2230

25-26 Feb 99

1400 - 0000

26-27 Feb 99

2115 - 0000


CAMEX-3 / TEFLUN-B
Convection and Moisture Experiment 3 (CAMEX-3) and Texas Florida Underflight-B (TEFLUN-B)

The third field campaign in the CAMEX series (CAMEX-3) was based at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida from 6 August through 23 September, 1998. This field campaign studied four active hurricanes; Bonnie, Danielle, Earl and Georges. CAMEX-3 collected data for research in tropical cyclone development, tracking, intensification, and land falling impacts using NASA-funded aircraft and surface remote sensing instrumentation.

Data collected during this study yielded high spatial and temporal information of hurricane structure, dynamics, and motion. These data, when analyzed within the context of more traditional aircraft, satellite, and ground-based radar observations, should provide additional insight to hurricane modelers and forecasters. This in turn will lead to more accurate forecasts of storm intensity, track and landfall.

NOTE:   The pixel latitudes and longitudes for the flights on 8/24/1998 and 9/02/1998 were approximated using GPS information only. Use appropriate caution in using this portion of the data.

Flights were conducted in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and in the Western Atlantic Ocean.

Additional information about CAMEX-3 can be found at http://camex.msfc.nasa.gov/camex3.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC)

Mission Objective

31 Jul 98

1700 - 1830

Integration

4 Aug 98 1630 - 1815 Integration

5 Aug 98

1400 - 2045

Integration

8 Aug 98

1600 - 1945

TEFLUN

13-14 Aug 98

1900 - 0000

TEFLUN/Andros

15 Aug 98

2000 - 2300

TEFLUN

23-24 Aug 98

1730 - 0000

Bonnie/Andros

24-25 Aug 98

1930 - 0315

Bonnie/Andros

26 Aug 98

1100 - 1815

Bonnie

29 Aug 98

0030 - 0145

Danielle

30 Aug 98

1945 - 2230

Danielle/Andros

2-3 Sep 98

1800 - 0000

C3/TEFLUN-Earl

5 Sep 98

1900 - 2300

TEFLUN

8 Sep 98

1900 - 2215

TEFLUN

13-14 Sep 98

2300 - 0245

C-3/Andros

17 Sep 98

1800 - 2230

C-3 TEFLUN

21 Sep 98

1415 - 2200

Georges

22 Sep 98

1800 - 2245

Georges

23 Sep 98

2100 - 2330

Georges

25 Sep 98

1230 - 2030

Georges

27 Sep 98

1430 -2100

Georges/Redeploy


FIRE-III / ACE
FIRST ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) Regional Experiment III (FIRE-III) Arctic Cloud Experiment (ACE)

FIRE, the First ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) Regional Experiment, studied a variety of Arctic cloud systems under spring and summer conditions. A team of national and international scientists conducted the FIRE Arctic Cloud Experiment (ACE) in a two-phase field campaign. The first phase began in April, 1998, with a second phase conducted during July, 1998.

The scientific objectives of FIRE ACE were to study impact of Arctic clouds on radiation exchange between surface, atmosphere, and space, and the influence of surface characteristics of sea ice, leads, and ice melt ponds on these clouds. FIRE ACE attempted to document, understand, and predict the Arctic cloud-radiation feedbacks, including changes in cloud fraction and vertical distribution, water vapor cloud content, cloud particle concentration and size, and cloud phase as atmospheric temperature and chemical composition change. FIRE ACE data is used to focus on improving current climate model simulations of the Arctic climate, especially with respect to clouds and their effects on the surface energy budget. In addition, FIRE ACE investigated a number of scientific questions dealing with radiation, cloud microphysics, and atmospheric chemistry.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

10 May 98

1500 - 1700

11 May 98

1445 - 1600

13 May 98

1615 - 2130

18-19 May 98

1945 - 0130

20-21 May 98

1900 - 0130

22-23 May 98

2015 - 0100

24-25 May 98

2000 - 0100

26-27 May 98

1900 - 0115

27-28 May 98

2000 - 0130

29-30 May 98

1930 - 0130

30-31 May 98

2100 - 0230

1-2 Jun 98

2100 - 0215

2-3 Jun 98

1945 - 0215

3-4 Jun 98

1900 - 0045

4-5 Jun 98

1900 - 0015

6 Jun 98

1900 - 2245

8-9 Jun 98

2100 - 0215


TEFLUN-A
Texas Florida Underflight Experiment –A (TEFLUN-A)

The TExas and FLorida UNderflights (TEFLUN) Experiment is a mission to obtain validation measurements for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). TRMM is a NASA and National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) coordinated mission that launched the TRMM satellite on 28 November 1997 with a unique complement of sensors to remotely observe rainfall throughout the global tropics. TEFLUN is the first in a series of experiments using a combination of airborne and surface-based measurements to complement the satellite data. Among these, are important measurements aboard the NASA high-altitude aircraft, similar to those on the TRMM satellite. They are used for direct intercomparisons with TRMM overflights where possible, but more frequently to simulate TRMM data by flying over precipitation systems within the experimental domain. These, along with surface-based measurements and computer models, will make unique contributions to our understanding of the tropical precipitation cycle.

Additional information about TEFLUN-A can be found at http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/fieldexp/TRMM_FE/teflun/tefluna.shtml.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC)

5 Apr 98

1600 - 1730

9 Apr 98

1615 - 2000

15 Apr 98

0030 - 0315

18 Apr 98

1630 - 2130

21 Apr 98

0330 - 0900

23 Apr 98

0230 - 0530

26-27 Apr 98

2330 - 0400

1 May 98

0000 - 0515

4-5 May 98

2100 - 0045

6 May 98

1830 - 2345


HSME-96
Huntsville Soil Moisture Experiment (HSME-96)

The first Huntsville Soil Moisture Experiment was held in June and July of 1996. The AMPR was deployed on a platform suspended over plots of various and changing vegetation and moisture content. The AMPR calibration system was compromised by the operational conditions and we were unable to produce quality brightness temperatures. The raw un-calibrated data are of little or no scientific use.


CAMEX-2
Convection and Moisture Experiment 2 (CAMEX-2)

CAMEX-2 was conducted from August 21 through September 2, 1995. The AMPR was deployed during (CAMEX-2) which was a NASA funded scientific study conducted out of Wallops Flight Facility, VA. This experiment was designed to study the three-dimensional moisture fields using satellite, aircraft, and ground-based instrumentation and the multi-frequency radiometric and lightning signatures of tropical convection in support of the Mission to Planet Earth. The geographic domain of the CAMEX-2 region was between 25.5 degrees north to 43 degrees north latitude and 70 degrees west to 83 degrees west longitude.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

Mission Objective

23 Aug 95 2030 - 2200 Moisture

25 Aug 95

1045 - 1600

H2O Vapor/Convection

28-29 Aug 95

2150 - 0330

H2O Vapor/Convection

30 Aug 95

0000 - 0600

H2O Vapor/Convection

2-3 Sep 95

1945 - 0130

H2O Vapor/Convection


CAMEX-1
Convection and Moisture Experiment 1 (CAMEX-1)

The AMPR was deployed for the CAMEX-1 which was a NASA funded scientific study conducted out of Wallops Flight Facility, VA. This experiment was designed to study the three-dimensional moisture fields using satellite, aircraft, and ground-based instrumentation and the multi-frequency radiometric and lightning signatures of tropical convection in support of the Mission to Planet Earth. The CAMEX-1 mission took place from September 8 through October 7, 1993. The geographic domain of the CAMEX-1 region was between 25.5 degrees north to 43 degrees north latitude and 70 degrees west to 83 degrees west longitude.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

Mission Objective

26 Sep 93

1900 - 2330

Convection

29 Sep 93

0100 - 0445

H 2O Vapor

30-31 Sep 93

2000 - 0200

H 2O Vapor/Convection

3-4 Oct 93

2000 - 0315

Convection

5 Oct 93

1600 - 2330

Convection


TOGA COARE
Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE)

The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere-Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE) ran from 1 Jan 1993 through 28 Feb 1993. The interaction of the atmosphere and ocean are important in the overall energy balance of the planet, and understanding the physical processes. Collectively, the goals of TOGA COARE were designed to provide an understanding of the role of the warm pool regions of the tropics in the mean and transient state of the tropical ocean-atmosphere system.

The scientific goals of TOGA COARE are to describe and understand: 1) The principal processes responsible for the coupling of the ocean and the atmosphere in the western Pacific warm pool system; 2) The principal atmospheric processes that organize convection in the warm pool region; 3) The oceanic response to combined buoyancy and wind stress forcing in the western Pacific warm pool region; and 4) The multiple scale interactions that extend the oceanic and atmospheric influence of the western Pacific warm pool system to other regions and vice versa.

Flight information is provided in the table below. The objectives column is included for the convenience of the user; the mission objective was convection when it was forecast in the target area and radiation when it was not.

Additional information about TOGA COARE can be found at http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/fieldexp/TOGA/.

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC
)

Mission Objective

12-13 Jan 93

2130 - 0715

Radiation

18-19 Jan 93 2300 - 0715 Convection

20 Jan 93

0130 - 0915

Convection

26-27 Jan 93

2315 - 0700

Radiation

29-30 Jan 93

2200 - 0000

Radiation

1-2 Feb 93

2200 - 0545

Convection

5 Feb 93

1430 - 2045

Convection

8 Feb 93

1600 - 2100

Convection

9-10 Feb 93

1815 - 0015

Convection

11 Feb 93

1430 - 2215

Radiation

17 Feb 93

0015 - 0130

Convection

21 Feb 93

0000 - 0200

Radiation

23-24 Feb 93

1900 - 0200

Convection

24-25 Feb 93

2000 - 0315

Radiation


STORMFEST
STormscale Operation and Research Meteorology – Fronts Experiment Systems Test (STORM-FEST)

STORMFEST flights were conducted over the central US in February and March of 1992. Data were collected on many flights above numerous winter storm systems. Systems observed included thunderstorms, gravity waves and large scale precipitation regions. Additionally, data from low level features in and near the boundary layer were collected. Unfortunately, AMPR experienced problems that left the data unusable.


CaPE
Convection and Precipitation/Electrification Experiment (CaPE)

The CaPE experiment was conducted over east central Florida near Cape Canaveral in 1991. NASA provided aircraft and remote sensing instrumentation to observe convection, microphysical and electrical parameters. Ground based in situ measurements of moisture, temperature, winds, and electric fields were used as ground truth for the remote sensing instrumentation.

Ground truth data is available from CLASS (Cross-chain Loran Atmospheric Sounding System) rawinsondes launched during the experiment, and conventional surface observations are available from numerous Portable Automated Mesonet (PAM) sites located within the experiment domain. In addition to wind observations from the PAM stations, wind measurements are also available from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) wind tower network.

Prior to 1993, the AMPR utilized calibration loads made of Eccosorb UHP-2-NRC. While highly emissive over the entire frequency range of AMPR, the material was a poor thermal conductor. As a result, significant temperature gradients existed throughout the warm load because the heat produced by the heater strips did not efficiently conduct through the material to the other side, which the radiometers viewed. Thus, uncertainties in the temperature of the load translate directly into errors in the calibrated Tb. Complicating the estimation of the surface temperature of the warm load is the corrugated shape of its surface, causing significant temperature gradients even at a constant depth in the material. Even though seven thermistors were embedded at several locations and depths within the load, an accurate solution to the problem would have required many more thermistors, knowledge of the different channels beam patterns across the load, and knowledge of the depths within the load to which different frequencies were sensitive. In contrast, the cold load was continually cooled with a stream of ambient air forced over the front and the back of the load, resulting in a uniform load temperature throughout most of a flight.

A simple, but empirical, solution to the hot load problem was used. Cloud-free land (warm Tb) and ocean background (cold Tb) measurements were taken throughout one of the October 1987 Florida flights. Radiative transfer model calculations of the most probable Tb in these situations were regressed against the thermistor and radiometer digital count data to arrive at regression coefficients that could then be applied to the thermistor temperatures. These calibration coefficients were found to provide consistent results during all subsequent flights. As a result, pre-1993 AMPR Tb will generally agree with model calculations for land surfaces or cloud-free ocean backgrounds since the calibration is dependent upon these model calculations. The absolute accuracy of the pre-1993 AMPR data is difficult to estimate, but is probably within about 4C, except at 85.5GHz Tb below 200K for which the absolute error probably exceeds 5C, and below 150K the error might reach 10C.

After installation of the new loads, a radiometer system warm bias problem of approximately 10C was discovered and remedied early in the TOGA COARE deployment. Even though this problem existed during the pre-1993 operation of AMPR, it was removed empirically by the procedure described above (Spencer et al., 1994).

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC)

Mission Objectives

21 Jul 91

0100 - 0430

Convection

24 Jul 91

1400 - 2145

Convection

28-29 Jul 91

1800 - 0000

Convection

30 Jul 91

1200 - 1800

H2O Vapor/Convection

5 Aug 91

1130 - 1815

Convection

6 Aug 91

1515 - 2130

H 2OVapor

8 Aug 91

1700 - 2145

Convection

12-13 Aug 91

1700 - 0015

Convection

13-14 Aug 91

2030 - 0300

Convection

16 Aug 91

1200 - 1430

H2O Vapor/Convection


JAX90
Jacksonville, Florida validation flights (JAX90)

The JAX90 flights were conducted during the month of October 1990 over the Gulf of Mexico. These early validation flights collected initial flight data from AMPR, which were then used to develop algorithms relating brightness temperatures observed at different wavelengths to precipitation characteristics. Individual flights are shown in the table below:

Flight Date
(UTC)

Start-stop time
(UTC)

10 Oct 90

1445 - 1730

15 Oct 90

1700 - 1945

16 Oct 90

1330 - 1800

18 Oct 90

1500 - 1745

22 Oct 90

1700 - 1900

 



 
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